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- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Geography
-
-
- Location:
- continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
- Map references:
- Antarctic Region
- Area:
- total area:
- 14 million sq km (est.)
- land area:
- 14 million sq km (est.)
- comparative area:
- slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
- note:
- second-smallest continent (after Australia)
- Land boundaries:
- none, but see entry on International disputes
- Coastline:
- 17,968 km
- Maritime claims:
- none, but see entry on International Disputes
- International disputes:
- Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below);
- sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France
- (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and
- UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of
- other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right
- to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
- west and 150 degrees west
- Climate:
- severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the
- ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher
- elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher
- temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below
- freezing
- Terrain:
- about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
- elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897
- meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land,
- Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on
- McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline,
- and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
- Natural resources:
- none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum
- and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small,
- uncommercial quantities
- Land use:
- arable land:
- 0%
- permanent crops:
- 0%
- meadows and pastures:
- 0%
- forest and woodland:
- 0%
- other:
- 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
- Irrigated land:
- 0 sq km
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Geography
- Environment:
- current issues:
- in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the
- Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to the
- lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when measurements were
- first taken
- natural hazards:
- katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
- frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form
- over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception
- Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare
- and weak
- international agreements:
- NA
- Note:
- the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer more
- solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at
- the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- People
-
-
- Population:
- no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally staffed research
- stations
- Summer (January) population:
- over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile
- 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12,
- India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264,
- Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116,
- Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565 (1989-90)
- Winter (July) population:
- over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China
- NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38, South Korea 14,
- NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, former USSR
- 313 (1989-90)
- Year-round stations:
- 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, Finland 1,
- France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South
- Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6 (1990-91)
- Summer only stations:
- over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1, Italy
- 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, UK 1,
- US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90); note - the disintegration of the
- former USSR has placed the status and future of its Antarctic facilities in
- doubt; stations may be subject to closings at any time because of ongoing
- economic difficulties
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Government
-
-
- Names:
- conventional long form:
- none
- conventional short form:
- Antarctica
- Digraph:
- AY
- Type:
- Antarctic Treaty Summary:
- The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23
- June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica.
- Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the
- 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993.
- Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16
- acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim
- portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19
- nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims
- have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of
- others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted
- to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country
- was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina,
- Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
- consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador
- (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan,
- South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South
- Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia.
- Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are -
- Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba
- (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala
- (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania
- (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992).
- Article 1:
- area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as
- weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be
- used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
- Article 2:
- freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
- Article 3:
- free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and
- other international agencies
- Article 4:
- does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new
- claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
- Article 5:
- prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
- Article 6:
- includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00
- minutes south
- Article 7:
- treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to
- any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance
- notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must
- be given
- Article 8:
- allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states
- Article 9:
- frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Government
- Article 10:
- treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that
- are contrary to the treaty
- Article 11:
- disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately,
- by the ICJ
- Articles 12, 13, 14:
- deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved
- nations
- Other agreements:
- more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and
- ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the Conservation of
- Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of
- Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
- Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988
- but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental
- Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this
- agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through
- five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental
- impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits
- all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; 14
- parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1995
- Legal system:
- US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such
- as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries.
- Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic
- Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and
- criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by
- regulation of statute: The taking of native mammals or birds; the
- introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially
- protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and
- the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of
- the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines
- and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation,
- and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US
- Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to
- Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs,
- Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such
- plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more
- information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National
- Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703-306-1031).
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Economy
-
-
- Overview:
- No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and
- small-scale tourism, both based abroad.
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Transportation
-
-
- Ports:
- none; offshore anchorage
- Airports:
- 42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15 national
- governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated by
- commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads at 36 of
- these locations; runways at 14 locations are gravel, sea ice, glacier ice,
- or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing aircraft; no paved
- runways; 15 locations have snow-surface skiways limited to use by
- ski-equipped planes - 11 runways/skiways 1,000 to 3,000 m, 5 runways/skiways
- less than 1,000 m, 8 runways/skiways greater than 3,000 m, and 5 of
- unspecified or variable length; airports generally subject to severe
- restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic
- conditions; airports do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the
- respective governmental or non-governmental operating organization required
- for landing
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Communications
-
-
- Telephone system:
- local:
- NA
- intercity:
- NA
- international:
- NA
- Radio:
- broadcast stations:
- AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
- radios:
- NA
- Television:
- broadcast stations:
- NA
- televisions:
- NA
- THE WORLD FACTBOOK
- Antarctica
- Defense Forces
-
-
- Note:
- the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as
- the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of
- military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use
- of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other
- peaceful purposes
-